دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های زبان شناسی تطبیقی 2252-0740 15 30 2025 12 22 A Construction Morphological Investigation of the Polysemy of Persian Similarity Suffixes in the Naab Corpus بررسی چندمعنایی پسوندهای شباهت بر اساس رویکرد ساختواژه‌ساختی در پیکره ناب 1 24 6492 10.22084/rjhll.2025.30695.2366 FA محمدرضا پهلوان نژاد استاد زبانشناسی دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران ریحانه احمدی دانشجوی دکتری زبانشناسی شناختی دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران سجاد باقری دانشجوی دکتری زبانشناسی دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران 0000-0002-4557-8274 Journal Article 2025 03 18 Introduction Polysemy—defined as the coexistence of multiple, related senses that radiate from a shared conceptual core—has been a longstanding topic in Cognitive Semantics. In the context of Persian, where morphological derivation plays a central role in lexical innovation, polysemy becomes particularly intriguing when seen through the micro lens of suffixal constructions. The current study investigates the polysemy of three Persian similarity denoting suffixes—-gūn, -fām, and -vaš—using Construction Morphology as its analytic lens (Booij, 2007, 2010, 2018). While Persian pedagogical grammars often present these suffixes in simplified semantic terms (mainly resemblance in color, form, or texture), this corpus-based study reveals more complex semantic networks, degrees of productivity, and register specific behaviors. Literature Review Traditional Persian grammars have tended to view similarity suffixes as fixed meaning bearers with transparent reference scopes (Haghshenas, 2009; Dehkhoda, 1995; Amid, 2010). Yet, the Construction Morphology framework redefines these suffixes as holistic form–meaning pairings—or constructions—that participate in broader morphological networks. Related research in Persian morphology has explored affixal productivity (Kashani, 1992; Kolbasi, 2012) and cognitive semantic expansion (Afrahi & Koushki, 2017; Pourmohammad et al., 2019), but few works have deeply modeled similarity suffixes via radial category structures (Lakoff, 1987; Geeraerts, 2010). For instance, Bamshadi & Ansariyan (2013, 2017) have demonstrated multiple polysemy patterns for other Persian derivational suffixes within Construction Morphology, yet the trio examined here—-gūn, -fām, and -vaš—remains under described in large scale corpus studies. Methodology Corpus Selection The study draws on the Naab Corpus, a morphologically annotated Persian mega corpus containing over 15 billion tokens. This extensive coverage is essential for detecting low frequency suffixes, especially -vaš, which verges on obsolescence. Data Extraction Corpus searches employed orthography sensitive and morphology aware queries aligned with Naab’s lemmatization standards. These were designed to: Capture inflected or compound embedded derivatives. Exclude false positives where the string matched but did not function as a suffix. For each suffix, exhaustive lists of candidate forms were generated. From these, 1,000 random tokens per suffix were drawn for manual semantic classification. Semantic Tagging Using radial category modeling (Brugman & Lakoff, 1988; Geeraerts, 2010), tokens were tagged into literal similarity (physical/perceptual) and extended senses (metaphorical/metonymic). For example: Literal: golgūn ‘rose colored’ Metaphorical: janggūn ‘war like’ in demeanor Tagging was validated against lexicographic authorities (Dehkhoda, Amid, Mo’in) and prior Persian morphological studies. 3.4 Productivity Analysis Following Baayen (1993), both token productivity (frequency) and type productivity (distinct forms) were measured. Register based distribution was also calculated to uncover stylistic tendencies. Results Suffix -gūn Productivity: Highest among the three, with over 900 literal similarity tokens. Semantic Range: Encompasses chromatic resemblance (sanggūn, ‘stone colored’) and conceptual resemblance (doshmangūn, ‘enemy like’). Register Spread: Found across literary, journalistic, and formal prose. Radial Network: Multiple semantic branches—color, material, demeanor, degree approximation (“ish” meanings such as talxgūn ‘somewhat bitter’). Suffix -fām Productivity: Moderate; ~500 tokens dominated by color similarity (nīlīfām, ‘indigo hued’). Semantic Core: Specialized in hue based resemblance; rare metaphorical uses (ensānfām, ‘human like’). Register Spread: Strong presence in technical, artistic, and advertising contexts. Suffix -vaš Productivity: Marginal; very low token/type counts. Diachronic Status: Largely fossilized in literary and archaic registers (shīrvaš, ‘lion like’). Semantic Network: Narrow; retains prototypical resemblance meaning but with no significant new formations. Discussion The findings confirm a continuum of morphological vitality: -gūn at the expansionist, high productivity pole; -fām at a specialized, moderate productivity midpoint; -vaš at the attritional, near obsolete end. From a Construction Morphology perspective, these suffixes differ not only in productivity but in schematicity—the degree of abstraction of their morphological schema (Booij, 2018). The -gūn schema connects to multiple higher order constructions, supporting rich polysemic branching. -fām sustains a specialized sub network centered on color, while -vaš embodies a reduced, fossilized network. Moreover, the corpus based radial analysis reveals how metaphor, metonymy, and degree modification mechanisms vary by suffix. This spectrum reflects broader processes of lexical innovation, semantic bleaching, and diachronic narrowing—phenomena documented across languages but under researched in Persian derivation. Methodologically, combining large scale corpus frequency profiling with qualitative semantic modeling provides a more robust account than dictionary based or intuition driven studies. References Booij, G. (2007). “Construction Morphology and the Lexicon.” In F. Montermini, G. Boye & N.R. Hathout (Eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 5th Decembrettes: Morphology in Toulouse(pp. 33‑44). Cascadilla Proceedings Project. Booij, G. (2018). “Construction Morphology.” In A. Hippisley & G. Stump (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Construction Grammar(pp. 255‑274). Oxford University Press. Baayen, R.H. (1993). “On Frequency, Transparency and Productivity.” In Booij, G. & van Marle, J. (Eds.), Yearbook of Morphology 1992(pp. 181‑208). Springer. Brugman, C.M., & Lakoff, G. (1988). Cognitive Topology and Lexical Networks. Berkeley Cognitive Science Report 64. Geeraerts, D. (2010). Theories of Lexical Semantics. Oxford University Press. چندمعنایی واژگانی یکی از مفاهیم بنیادین معنی‌شناسی شناختی است که در آن معانی گوناگون یک واژه، اعضای یک مقوله را شکل می‌دهند. این پژوهش با رویکرد معنی‌شناختی– شناختی، چندمعنایی سه پسوند اشتقاقی «ـفام»، «ـگون» و «ـوش» را به‌عنوان پسوندهای شباهت در زبان فارسی بررسی می‌کند. روش تحقیق توصیفی– تحلیلی و ماهیت آن کیفی است. داده‌ها از پیکره‌ی بزرگ ناب استخراج و با استفاده از لغت‌نامه دهخدا (۱۳۷۳)، فرهنگ معین (۱۳۸۱) و فرهنگ عمید (۱۳۸۹) تبیین شده‌اند. نتایج نشان می‌دهد «ـگون» گستره‌ی وسیعی از کارکردهای چندمعنایی دارد و گاه با تغییر معنای ریشه، واژه‌ای مستقل می‌سازد. در مقابل، «ـفام» و «ـوش» با وجود تفاوت‌های معنایی، دارای معنای مرکزی مشترک «شباهت» هستند. تمایز اصلی این دو، در انتزاعی یا عینی بودن مفهوم شباهت‌یابی است. به‌طور کلی، هر سه پسوند، طیف متنوعی از معانی را گرد محور «مقوله شباهت» سازمان‌دهی می‌کنند.

https://rjhll.basu.ac.ir/article_6492_aa8fdbb7d8159b3048daca36fe5c06d2.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های زبان شناسی تطبیقی 2252-0740 15 30 2025 12 22 Analyzing Polysemy in "zædæn" Light Verb Constructions: A Constructional Morphology Perspective چندمعنایی همکرد «زدن» در افعال مرکب زبان فارسی از منظر صرف ساختی 25 54 6493 10.22084/rjhll.2025.30591.2363 FA محمد حسن‌شاهی راویز دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی، تهران، ایران. 0000-0002-0099-5373 پریا رزم‌دیده دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه ولی‌عصر(عج) رفسنجان، ایران Journal Article 2025 02 21 Introduction Compound verbs represent a cornerstone of modern Persian, serving as a primary mechanism for lexical innovation and coping with the need to express novel concepts. These structures, typically formed by combining a non-verbal element (a noun, adjective, or prepositional phrase) with a semantically light verb, are highly frequent and productive. Among these light verbs, "zædæn" (prototypically meaning 'to hit' or 'to strike') stands out for its extraordinary versatility and frequency. Its semantic range is vast; foundational dictionaries like the Sokhan Dictionary (Anvari, 2002) list up to 71 distinct meanings for the verb. Its core, prototypical meaning involves the application of physical force, conceptually built around a triad of elements: an agent (the hitter), a patient (the entity hit), and an instrument or manner (the type of contact). This study moves beyond traditional, purely lexical analyses to adopt the framework of Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010a, 2010b). This theoretical approach allows for a holistic analysis where the compound verb is treated as a construction—a stored pairing of form and meaning. The model posits a network of schematic constructions that license the formation of new words, utilizing key concepts such as constructional schemas, subschemas, default inheritance, and motivation. Our primary objective is to leverage this framework to systematically categorize the extensive array of "zædæn" compound verbs, map the intricate polysemous network that connects them, and analyze the cline of semantic bleaching that "zædæn" undergoes, from its concrete core meaning to highly abstract and grammaticalized functions. This analysis aims to provide a more coherent understanding of Persian word formation, with potential applications in pedagogical contexts for learners of Persian and in computational linguistics for natural language processing tasks. Background Construction Morphology is a word-based, constructionist model that sits within the broader paradigm of cognitive linguistics. It challenges strict modularity by arguing that morphological patterns are best represented as constructions—conventionalized form-meaning pairings—organized in a hierarchical lexicon (Jackendoff, 2007; Culicover & Jackendoff, 2005). Its formal foundations were significantly advanced by Booij (2010b), building on earlier type-based morphological work by Riehemann (1998). In Persian linguistics, the application of Construction Morphology has gained considerable traction over the past decade. Following its introduction by Rafiei (2012), scholars have successfully deployed it to analyze a wide range of phenomena, including derivational suffixation (e.g., Bamshadi & Ghatreh, 2017; Bamshadi et al., 2018), prefixation (Bahrami-Khorshid & Namdari, 2019), and various compounding patterns (e.g., Karimi et al., 2023; Hasanpouran & Alizadeh, 2023). Crucially, this framework has proven particularly effective in handling polysemy, a central feature of the Persian verbal system. Previous work has already demonstrated its utility in analyzing other high-frequency light verbs like "gereftan" (to take) (Razmdideh & Hassan-Shahi Raviz, 2021). This study seeks to extend this successful line of inquiry to the complex and pervasive case of "zædæn". Method This research is grounded in a descriptive-analytical methodology. Data was systematically gathered from a combination of authoritative lexical sources and modern language corpora. The primary sources included the Sokhan Dictionary (Anvari, 2002), the Zansou Dictionary (Keshani, 1993), the Dictionary of Syntactic Valency of Persian Verbs (Rasooli et al., 2011), and the specialized Corpus of Persian Light Verb Constructions (Es'haghi & Karimi-Doostan, 2022). To capture neologisms and contemporary usage, online Persian dictionaries and language resources were also consulted. This process yielded a robust dataset of 330 distinct compound verbs featuring "zædæn". Following collection, the data underwent a purification phase to remove non-compound entries. The remaining verbs were then subjected to a conceptual categorization, informed by existing dictionary classifications (e.g., Anvari, 2002; Family, 2006) and refined by native speaker linguistic intuition. The core of the analysis was conducted within the Construction Morphology framework. We posited a general constructional schema for Persian compound verbs, [X]I [zædæn]j[X]i[zædæn]j_Vk, and proceeded to identify the specific macro-schemas and their subsequent subschemas that are instantiated by the light verb "zædæn". The resulting network of schemas, organized from more abstract to more specific levels of description, is presented through detailed diagrams that visualize the hierarchical relationships and polysemous links within the data. Results Our analysis reveals that the semantic landscape of "zædæn" compound verbs is not chaotic but highly structured, organized into six primary macro-constructional schemas. Each schema is formally represented by a constructional template that pairs a specific morphological form with a core semantic value. The variable X in the nominal/adjectival slot (N/A) and the semantic variable SEM_i are co-indexed, meaning the specific meaning of the compound is a function of the element that occupies the X position. The six identified macro-schemas are as follows: The Impact Schema: This schema generates verbs where an agent volitionally acts upon a patient, causing a change of state. Its formal representation is: <[[X] N/Aᵢ [zædæn]ⱼ]Vₖ ↔ [Putting an effect related to SEMᵢ]ₖ> This overarching schema branches into several subschemas, including: Damaging/Attacking (e.g., šamšir zædæn → to strike with a sword; hile zædæn → to deceive), Transition/Modification (e.g., jowš zædæn → to boil), Trimming (e.g., riš zædæn → to shave), Partitioning (e.g., parde zædæn → to curtain off), Adding (e.g., namak zædæn→ to salt). The Emission/Spreading Schema: This category covers verbs meaning to emit, disseminate, or spread something, often sensory outputs. Its formal representation is: <[[X] N/Aᵢ [zædæn]ⱼ]Vₖ ↔ [Spreading related to SEMᵢ]ₖ> Key subschemas under this macro-schema include: Visual Emission (e.g., barq zædæn→ to flash), Auditory Emission (e.g., sut zædæn → to whistle), Onomatopoeic Sounds (e.g., qor-qor zædæn → to gurgle), Human Vocalization (e.g., faryad zædæn → to scream), Musical Sound Production (e.g., gitār zædæn 'to guitar-hit' → to play the guitar). The Transfer/Penetration Schema: Verbs in this schema involve using an instrument to transfer a substance into an entity or to penetrate a surface. Its formal representation is: <[[X] N/Aᵢ [zædæn]ⱼ]Vₖ ↔ [Transferring/Penetrating related to SEMᵢ]ₖ> This schema includes subschemas for: Substance Administration (e.g., mādd zædæn→ to do drugs), Injection (e.g., āmpul zædæn 'to ampoule-hit' → to inject), Loading/Refueling (e.g., bensin zædæn 'gasoline' → to refuel). The Rapid Action Schema: This schema captures quick, instantaneous, and often momentary actions, which are highly prevalent in colloquial speech. Its formal representation is: <[[X] N/Aᵢ [zædæn]ⱼ]Vₖ ↔ [Quick action related to SEMᵢ]ₖ> Subschemas under this macro-schema include: Creation/Establishment (e.g., māgāze zædæn → to set up a shop), Preparation (e.g., māye zædæn → to add yeast), Quick Measurement (e.g., tæxmin zædæn → to estimate), Communication (e.g., telefon zædæn → to telephone/call). The Automatic Movement Schema: This category describes dynamic, often repetitive and involuntary motions. Its formal representation is: <[[X] N/Aᵢ [zædæn]ⱼ]Vₖ ↔ [Automatic movement related to SEMᵢ]ₖ> This is realized through subschemas such as: Rhythmic Movement (e.g., par zædæn 'to feather' → to flap wings), Excitatory Movement (e.g., čarx zædæn → to spin; zānu zædæn → to kneel). The Theft Schema: This is a small but distinct and productive schema with no further subschemas. It specifically generates verbs meaning to steal or take illicitly. Its formal representation is: <[[X] N/Aᵢ [zædæn]ⱼ]Vₖ ↔ [Stealing related to SEMᵢ]ₖ> Here, X is typically a noun denoting the source or location of the theft (e.g., jib zædæn→ to pickpocket; bānk zædæn → to rob a bank). A key finding that cuts across all schemas is the cline of semantic bleaching that the light verb "zædæn" undergoes. It can retain a strong sense of its original meaning of force and impact (e.g., in the Impact schema) or be almost entirely delexicalized, serving primarily to convert the non-verbal element into a predicate while often imparting a nuanced meaning of suddenness, speed, or efficacy, as is most evident in the Rapid Action and Automatic Movement schemas. This continuum confirms earlier observations (e.g., Mansouri, 2013) and highlights the grammaticalization path of this high-frequency light verb. Figure 1: "Six macro-constructional schemata of Persian compound verbs with the light verb 'zædæn'" Discussion This study underscores the powerful explanatory capacity of Construction Morphology for tackling complex morphological phenomena in Persian. The framework successfully accounts for the extensive polysemy of "zædæn" compound verbs not as a list of arbitrary meanings but as a structured, motivated network of related constructions. The identified schemas and subschemas, linked by inheritance hierarchies, reveal a systematic architecture behind what might otherwise appear to be an erratic set of expressions. The pervasive features of suddenness and speed across many schemas can be interpreted as semantic traces inherited from the core meaning of "zædæn", even in its most bleached forms. This grammaticalization process is a fundamental driver of linguistic productivity, allowing the language to efficiently create new verbs, particularly for adapting loanwords (e.g., email zædæn, tag zædæn) and conceptualizing new actions. The implications of this research are twofold. Theoretically, it provides strong evidence for construction-based approaches to morphology, demonstrating their superiority over strictly lexica list models in dealing with productive and polysemous systems. Practically, the detailed schema-based description offers a valuable resource for pedagogy, providing a clear, structured framework to help learners master this challenging aspect of Persian vocabulary. For computational linguistics, these schemas can be formalized and implemented to significantly improve the performance of NLP systems in tasks involving parsing, generating, and translating Persian compound verbs. References Anvari, H. (2002). Farhang-e Bozorg-e Sokhan. Tehran: Sokhan. Bahrami-Khorshid, S., & Namdari, A. (2019). “The Study of Prefixed Verbs in Persian within the Framework of Construction Morphology”. Research in Western Iranian Languages and Dialects, 7(2): 35-55. doi: 10.22126/jlw.1970.1072 Bamshadi, P., & Ghatreh, F. (2017). “The polysemy of the Persian suffix '-i': A Construction Morphology approach”. Linguistic Investigations, 8(2): 265-289. Booij, G. (2010a). Compound construction: schemas or analogy? In S. Scalise & I. Vogel (Eds.), Cross-disciplinary issues in compounding(93–108). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.311.08boo Booij, G. (2010b). Construction Morphology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274269.001.0001 Culicover, P., & Jackendoff, R. (2005). Simpler syntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Es'haghi, M., & Karimi-Doostan, G. (2022). The Corpus of Persian Light Verb Constructions. Journal of Linguistic Research, 14(1): 173-198. https://literature.ut.ac.ir/compound-verb Family, N. (2006). Exploration of Semantic Space: The Case of Light Verb Construction in Persian[PhD dissertation, EHESS]. https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00011891 Hasanpuran, Z. and Alizadeh, A. (2024). Investigating the Compound Words Ended to “Negar” Stem in Persian Language: A Cognitive Approach. Language Research, 14(2): 79-104. doi: 10.22059/jolr.2024.363973.666852 Jackendoff, R. (2007). A parallel architecture perspective on language processing. Brain Research, 1146: 2–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2006.08.111 Karimi, K., Najafian, A., Mahdi-Beyraghdar, R., & HosseiniMaasoum, S. M. (2024). “Redefinition of Compounding in Sorani Kurdish Morphology: An Investigation on Nominal Compounds in Construction Morphology Approach”. Research in Western Iranian Languages and Dialects, 12(1): 73-94. doi: 10.22126/jlw.2023.9211.1704 Kashani, K. (1993). The Zansu Persian Dictionary. Tehran: Center of University Press. Mansouri, M. (2013). The light verb in Persian compound verbs. Studies of Languages and Dialects of Western Iran, 1(1): 77-104. Rafiei, A. (2012). “The concept of agent in Persian derived words”. Linguistic Researches, 2(7): 19-32. Rasooli, M.‎‎, Moloodi, A.‎ S.‎, Kouhestani, M.‎, Minaei Bidgoli, Behrouz.‎ (2011)‎.‎ A Syntactic Valency Lexicon for Persian Verbs: The First Steps towards Persian Dependency Treebank.‎ In 5th Language & Technology Conference (LTC): Human Language Technologies as a Challenge for Computer Science and Linguistics, Poznań, Poland,pp. 227-231. Razmdideh, P., & Hassan-Shahi Raviz, M. (2021). Analyzing the polysemy of Persian compound verbs with the light verb 'gereftan' based on Construction Morphology. Iranian Journal of Language and Linguistics, 6(2): 213-252. https://doi.org/10. 22099/jill.2022.42693.1294 Riehemann, S. Z. (1998). “Type-based derivational morphology”. The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics, 2(1): 49–77. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009713009957 در این جستار به بررسی افعال مرکب با همکرد «زدن» در زبان فارسی از منظر صرف ساختی پرداخته شده‌است. پژوهش حاضر رویکردی توصیفی-تحیلی دارد و با بهره‌گیری از داده‌های گردآوری شده از منابع متنوع لغوی و پیکره‌های زبانی، به شناسایی و تحلیل طرح‌واره‌های ساختی این افعال می‌پردازد. یافته‌های پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که افعال مرکب با همکرد «زدن» را می‌توان در شش طرح‌وارۀ ساختی کلی دسته‌بندی کرد که هر کدام دارای زیرطرح‌واره‌های خاص خود هستند. این طرح‌واره‌ها بر اساس معانی مختلف همچون تأثیرگذاری، حرکت، تولید، تغییر حالت، ایجاد و انجام عمل شکل گرفته‌اند. همچنین، مشخص شد که فعل «زدن» در این ساخت‌ها دارای درجات مختلفی از سبک‌شدگی است که می‌توان آن را بر روی یک پیوستار نشان داد. این پژوهش با ارائه تحلیلی جامع از ساختار و معنای افعال مرکب با همکرد «زدن»، به درک بهتر نظام واژه‌سازی زبان فارسی کمک می‌کند.

https://rjhll.basu.ac.ir/article_6493_def130d0b67eb38b7a8f4e7121ed432c.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های زبان شناسی تطبیقی 2252-0740 15 30 2025 12 22 A minimalist Approach to the Process of Gapping in Persian رویکرد کمینه‌گرا به فرایند کافت در زبان فارسی 55 79 6494 10.22084/rjhll.2025.28714.2298 FA راضیه مهدی بیرقدار استادیار زبانشناسی ، گروه زبانشناسی و زبان های خارجی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران الهه واثق دانش آموخته زبانشناسی، گروه زبان شناسی و زبان های خارجی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران. آرزو نجفیان دانشیار گروه زبان شناسی، گروه زبان شناسی و زبان های خارجی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران. مزدک انوشه استادیار زبانشناسی، گروه زبانشناسی، دانشکده ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2023 12 31 Introduction Ellipsis is one of the most common syntactic processes in Persian and has long attracted the attention of linguists working within various theoretical frameworks. Among its different types, gapping—the deletion of a verbal element alone or together with its internal or external arguments from the second conjunct of a coordinate structure—has remained one of the most controversial. Two major analytical approaches have been proposed to account for this phenomenon: the across- the- board- movement hypothesis (Johnson, 2009) and the TP-deletion analysis (Anousheh, 2017). The present study aims to reexamine gapping in Persian within the most recent version of the Minimalist framework, namely the Dynamic Phase Theory (Bošković, 2014), and to provide a more comprehensive syntactic explanation of the process. Methodology This research adopts a descriptive–explanatory design. The data are based on the authors’ linguistic intuition and examples drawn from both spoken and written Persian. The analysis follows the principles of the Minimalist Program and Phase Theory, comparing Persian gapping structures with those found in other languages such as English, Japanese, and Turkish. Previous accounts of gapping—particularly those of Johnson (2009) and Anousheh (2017)—are reviewed and critically evaluated. The study further examines the interaction between verb movement, phase boundaries, and deletion operations to determine which syntactic domain is actually elided in Persian gapping constructions. Data Analysis The analysis first demonstrates that Johnson’s (2009) across- the- board- movement approach, though successful for English, cannot yield grammatical Persian sentences due to the head-final nature of Persian TP and the obligatory verb movement to the T head. Consequently, Anousheh’s (2017) proposal that gapping in Persian results from TP-deletion (or clause stripping) provides a more adequate description of Persian data. However, evidence from complex aspectual structures shows that what is deleted in Persian gapping cannot always be the TP node. Applying the principles of Dynamic Phase Theory (Bošković, 2013, 2014), the study argues that gapping in Persian should be analyzed as Phase Deletion. In sentences containing perfective, imperfective, or progressive aspectual projections, the highest aspectual phrase (PerfP or ProgP) functions as the phase, and its deletion accounts for grammatical gapping. Conversely, in simple clauses lacking aspectual projections, the phase extends to the TP through Phase Extension (Gallego, 2010), and deletion of this extended phase results in a grammatical gapping construction. Findings The findings reveal that gapping in Persian is not uniformly realized through TP-deletion as previously claimed. Instead, the deleted constituent corresponds to the entire phase, which may vary depending on the clause structure. In complex aspectual constructions, the deleted element is the maximal aspectual projection; in simple clauses, it corresponds to the extended TP phase. This analysis successfully explains why the deletion of only the lexical or auxiliary verb results in ungrammaticality, whereas deleting the entire phase yields well-formed sentences. Conclusion Within the framework of Dynamic Phase Theory, this study concludes that gapping in Persian is best characterized as phase deletion, rather than as TP-deletion or as the result of a shared movement process. The research provides a novel phase-based explanation for ellipsis in Persian and demonstrates that phase hood is a flexible and context-dependent property of syntactic structures. This not only challenges earlier analyses but also contributes to cross-linguistic understanding of ellipsis phenomena from a minimalist perspective. Keywords: ellipsis, gapping, Minimalist approach, Dynamic Phase Theory, Persian language Reference Bošković, Ž. (2013). Phases beyond clauses. In: L. Schurcks, A. Giannakidou, U. Etxeberria, and P. Kosta (Eds).The nominal Structure in Slavic and Beyond, (75-128). Boston: De Gruyter. Bošković, Ž. (2014). “Now I am a Phase, now I am not a Phase: on the Variability of Phases with Extraction and Ellipsis”. Linguistic Inquiry. 45: 27- 89. Gallego, Á. (2010). Phase Theory. Amsterdam: John Benjamin’s publishing. Johnson, K. (2009). “Gapping Is Not (VP-) Ellipsis”. Linguistic Inquiry. 40: 289–328. حذف یکی از فرایند‌های رایج در زبان فارسی است که توجه زبان‌شناسان متعددی را به خود جلب کرده است. این پدیده از انواع متنوعی در این زبان برخوردار است؛ که یکی از آنها، فرایند کافت است. فرایندی که در جملات هم‌پایه زبان فارسی اتفاق می‌افتد و در آن عنصر فعلی به تنهایی و یا به همراه موضوعات درونی و یا بیرونی‌اش از بند هم‌پایه دوم حذف می‌شود. این فرایند با توجه به ویژگی‌هایی که دارد در نظریه‌های متفاوت نحوی مورد مناقشه است و رویکردی دوگانه به تحلیل این ساخت‌ها وجود دارد. پژوهش حاضر درصدد است که بر اساس جدید‌ترین رویکرد نحو کمینه‌گرا (نظریه فاز پویا) تحلیلی نو از این فرایند زبانی ارائه نماید. روش پژوهش حاضر توصیفی تبینی است و داده های پژوهش حاضر بر اساس شم زبانی نویسندگان و با توجه به پژوهش‌های پیشین تحلیل شده است. یافته‌ها نشان داد که در چارچوب نظری مورد مطالعه آن‌چه در ساختار جملات کافته حذف می‌شود نه براساس رویکرد انوشه (1397) صرفاً حاصل فرایند بند‌زدایی حذف گروه زمان است و نه براساس آراء جانسون (2009) حاصل فرایند گذر مشترک است، بلکه در تقابل با آراء زبان شناسان پیشین، پژوهش حاضر استدلال می‌کند که کافت در زبان فارسی حاصل حذف فاز است.

https://rjhll.basu.ac.ir/article_6494_aef546f29283b6ccef3c61f58fb8e79b.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های زبان شناسی تطبیقی 2252-0740 15 30 2025 12 22 Comparative Analysis of the New and Previous Orthography Aprroved by Persian Academy of Language and Literature تحلیل تطبیقیِ دستور خطِ جدید و پیشینِ فرهنگستان زبان و ادب فارسی 81 114 6495 10.22084/rjhll.2024.29126.2317 FA محمدامین ناصح استادیار گروه زبان‌شناسی دانشکده ادبیات و علوم انسانی دانشگاه بیرجند 0009-0009-4666-7197 امیرحسین اخلاقی دانشجوی کارشناسی‌ارشد زبان‌شناسی دانشگاه بیرجند Journal Article 2024 03 16 Introduction According to Article 15 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Persian script is the official writing system of the country, and all official documents, correspondence, and textbooks must be written in this script (Persian Orthography, 2022, p. 7). Considering the ethno-linguistic diversity in Iran, Persian script is one of the most important factors in maintaining the unity of our society. However, its writing conventions have been subject to arbitrary preferences and inconsistency, which has created challenges for the country’s official script. One of the solutions to this issue is the adoption of a uniform method of writing in Persian texts. Nearly twenty years after the publication of the first edition of the Persian Orthography and in light of the extensive feedback received, as well as the challenges of Persian typesetting in computer environments and cyberspace, the Academy of Persian Language and Literature established a working group under the supervision of its Vice President for Science and Research, with the participation of a number of experts and specialists, to revise the orthography. After nearly seventy sessions, a new edition of the Persian Orthography was prepared, approved, and made ready for publication (Persian Orthography, 2022, p. 18). However, the orthographic dictionary of Persian based on the new guidelines has not yet been edited and published. The new edition of the orthography approved by the Academy (2022) has more advantages and fewer shortcomings compared to the previous version. It seems that the working group paid relative attention to the published critiques; nevertheless, some issues remain that are expected to be addressed in future editions. It must be acknowledged that preparing an orthographic system for Persian, given the multiplicity of views in this field, is a challenging task, and thus the efforts of the working group cannot be overlooked. Even so, a critical examination of the new orthography will contribute to its improvement. The present article aims to offer a comparative analysis of the new edition and the previous version of the orthography, highlighting not only the advantages of the revised guidelines but also some of their shortcomings. Literature Review In the contemporary period, several linguists and literary scholars have expressed their views on considerations regarding Persian orthography. Among them are Bahmanyar (1942), Nātel Khanlari (1945), Behruz (1890–1971), Haqshenas (1977), Sadeqi (2006), Najafi (2008), Bateni (2009), Ashuri (2009), Safavi (2012), Kazazi (2012), Dabirmoghaddam (2012), Simai Gilani (2016), Fotouhi (2020), and others, who voiced their critical perspectives on the state of Persian script. Following the publication of the orthography approved by the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, a number of critiques also appeared. For example, Gholamhosseinzadeh (2000), prior to the final approval of the Academy’s earlier orthography (2001), criticized its draft version in an article. Masoumi Hamadani (2002), in an article entitled “Persian Script and Computers”, discussed the unification of Persian orthography for use with spellcheckers. Majd (2008), in his article, criticized the section on the spacing or concatenation of compound words in the Academy’s orthography. Ahmadi-Nasab and Siamak (2015), in their study, examined seven top journals indexed in the Islamic World Science Citation Database across seven subject areas, focusing on the extent to which the approved orthographic guidelines of the Academy (2001) were followed. Similarly, Sinaifar (2015), in his master’s thesis, analyzed the points of convergence and divergence between the publishing guidelines of Payame Noor University and the Academy’s approved orthography (2001). Modarres Khiabani (2018), in his article, studied the writing system used in the subtitles of the IRIB “News” and “Ifilm” channels. Ranjbar and et. al (2019) investigated the degree of conformity of the writing practices of authors and users of Persian scientific information databases with the Academy’s approved guidelines (2001). Finally, Khalilipour (2023), in his article entitled “A Review of Orthography”, critiques two issues in the Academy’s newly approved orthography (2022): the use of the ezafe marker and the spacing of compound clitics and conjunctions. Methodology The first edition of the Academy’s Persian Orthography (2014) was compared with its second edition (2023) in terms of writing and editing guidelines. Some of the editorial considerations that were expected to be included in the first edition but had no place in its structure were presented independently in the second edition, accompanied by examples. However, when comparing the examples of the first edition with those of the revised edition, certain frequently used instances still appeared to be omitted in the new version. Nevertheless, the word tables at the end of the book (common spelling mistakes) showed a notable improvement in the revised edition. It should be noted that in the writing style of the present article, an contrastive approach has been adopted so that some rules and annotations under discussion are recalled. This enables the reader to understand the subject matter without the need for repeated reference to the “previous orthography” and its “new edition.” Discussion and Conclusion Compiling Persian orthography, given its various complexities, is by no means an easy task, and success in this field is regarded as one of the lasting achievements of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature (Persian Grammar and Orthography Committee), which will remain as a legacy in the area of Persian language planning. Clearly, the practical adoption of such an orthography is directly linked to users’ understanding of its rules and, subsequently, their cooperation. As noted in the section on the advantages of the “new edition,” this guideline has improved over the “previous edition” in certain areas such as spacing, the addition of new rules, and the provision of necessary explanations. Considering and implementing the suggestions mentioned in the section on shortcomings, along with attention to other critiques presented, can shed light on the qualitative enhancement of the “new edition” and contribute to its greater usability for the general public. In this regard, the role of the national media (IRIB) and the Ministry of Education in helping to cultivate and promote the “Academy-approved orthography” should not be overlooked. Aligning the writing of textbooks with that guideline, as well as holding training workshops and providing in-service courses for relevant teachers, are important points that have been neglected. It is hoped that continued bilateral meetings between the Academy of Persian Language and Literature and the Ministry of Education will lead to closer coordination and greater alignment between these two institutions. Moreover, given its vast audience, the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) can play a crucial role in promoting the Academy’s approved orthography by presenting a correct model of Persian writing in subtitles and other written sections. References Academy of Persian Language and Literature (2015). Persian Orthography. Tehran: Publishing Department of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature. [in Persian] Academy of Persian Language and Literature (2022). Persian Orthography. Tehran: Publishing Department of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature. [in Persian] Ahmadi-Nasab, Fatemeh & Siamak, Marzieh (2015). “An Examination of the Use of the Academy-Approved Persian Orthography in Leading Journals Indexed in the Islamic World Science Citation Database”. Dastoor, 11: 167–188. [in Persian] Alinezhad, Siros & Roshan, Simin (2009). “A Conversation with Mohammad-Reza Bateni.” Bukhara, 72: 23–45. [in Persian] Bahmanyar, Ahmad (1943). “Persian Spelling: A Proposal to the Academy.” Nameh-ye Farhangestan (Old Series), 4: 42–66. [in Persian] Fars News Agency Website (2008). “Abolhassan Najafi: Today’s Orthography Is a Real Chaos”. [in Persian] https://www.farsnews.ir/amp/8704250387 Gholamhosseinzadeh, Gholamhossein (2000). “A Critique of Persian Orthography.” Journal of Humanities, Alzahra University, 10(34): 125–153. [in Persian] Ghorbanzadeh, Farhad (2021). Right and Wrong from the Perspective of Linguistics. Tehran: Ketab-e Bahar Publications. [in Persian] Haqshenas, Ali-Mohammad (1977). Phonetics. Tehran: Agah Publications. [in Persian] ISNA News Agency Website (2012). “Cyrus Safavi's controversial words about Persian calligraphy”. [in Persian] https://www.isna.ir/news/91110703827 ISNA News Agency Website (2012). “Mir Jalaluddin Kazazi's proposal to solve the difficulties of Persian script.” [in Persian] https://www.isna.ir/news/91110100197 ISNA News Agency Website (2012). “Mohammad Dabir Moghaddam: Any interference with Persian script is flawed”. [in Persian] https://www.isna.ir/news/91113018330 Jabbari, Hagh & Jowadi, Pasha (2009). “A Conversation with Dariush Ashuri.” Bukhara, 72: 46–53. [in Persian] Khalilipour, Nazanin (2023). “A Review of the Orthography Issue.” Jahan-e Ketab, 28(3): 48–51. [in Persian] Majd, Omid (2008). “A Critique of the Concatenation or Separation of Compound Words Based on the Academy’s Orthography and New Proposals for Their Simplification and Unification.” Bahar-e Adab, 1(1): 84–87. [in Persian] Masoumi Hamadani, Hossein (2002). “Persian Script and Computers.” Nashr-e Danesh, 19(2): 2–6. [in Persian] Modarres Khiabani, Shahram (2018). “A Writing System Pathology of Subtitles in the News and iFilm Television Channels: A Corpus-Based Study.” Journal of Audiovisual Media, 11(27): 32–61. [in Persian] Nasseh, Mohammad-Amin (2004). “A Review of University Theses on Persian Orthography”. Nameh-ye Farhangestan, 23: 47–50. [in Persian] Nātel Khanlari, Parviz (1945). “The Issue of Reforming Persian Script.” Sokhan Monthly, 2(4): 242–247. [in Persian] Ranjbar, Ayoub; Abbaspour, Javad; Sotoudeh, Hajar; & Moloudi, Amir-Saeed (2019). “An Examination of the Conformity of the Writing Practices of Authors and Users of Persian Scientific Information Databases with the Academy-Approved Guidelines on Word Concatenation, Close Writing, and Separation.” Library and Information Science, 87: 165–187. [in Persian] Roustayi, Mohsen (1993). “Word Changes and the Law of Establishing the Academy of Iran”. Ganjineh-ye Asnad, 3(12): 29-45. [in Persian] Sadeqi, Ali-Ashraf & Zand-Moqaddam, Zahra (2015). Orthographic Dictionary of Persian Script. Tehran: Publications of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature. [in Persian] Sadeqi, Ali-Ashraf (1974). “On Arabic Compounds with the Element al- in Persian.” Journal of the Faculty of Literature and Humanities, 362: 129–136. [in Persian] Sinaifar, Somayeh (2015). A Critical Review of the Orthography of Undergraduate Prose Textbooks at Payame Noor University. Master’s Thesis in Persian Language and Literature, Payame Noor University of Ahvaz. [in Persian] Website of Bulletin News (2020). “The thirst for changing the Persian script”. [in Persian] https://www.bultannews.com/fa/news/692569 Website of Tasnim News (2023). “Haddad Adel's explanation about stubbornness with Persian calligraphy”. [in Persian] https://www.tasnimnews.com/fa/news/1402/02/18/2891613 Website of the Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia (2016). “Linguistics, Editing, and Persian Orthography in Conversation with Master Ahmad Samii Gilani”. [in Persian] https://www.cgie.org.ir/fa/news/128670 Website of the Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia (2017). “Interview with Cyrus Safavi on the Idea of Changing Persian Script”. [in Persian] https://www.cgie.org.ir/fa/news/212625 Zabih, Behruz (1984). Script and Culture (2nd ed.). Tehran: Forouhar Publications. [in Persian] در دهه‌های اخیر کتاب‌های چندی با موضوع آیین نگارش و ویرایش فارسی از برخی استادان و صاحب‌نظران زبان فارسی منتشر شده است. در این‌میان تنها شیوه‌نامه‌ای که منعکس‌کننده اجماع نظرات متخصصین حوزه‌های زبان و ادبیات فارسی، زبان‌شناسی و علوم مرتبط بوده است، دستور خط مصوب فرهنگستان زبان و ادب فارسی است که نخستین ‌بار در سال 1380 همسو با یکی از وظایف مهم آن سازمان انتشار یافت و «ویراست جدید» آن نیز در اواخر سال 1401 منتشر شد. در پژوهش حاضر سعی بر آن است که با مقایسۀ «نسخۀ پیشین» دستور خط مصوب با «ویراست جدید» آن ضمن بیان برخی امتیازات ویراست جدید بر مواردی از کاستی‌های آن نیز پرتو افکنده شود. نتیجۀ این بررسی‌ تطبیقی نشان داد گرچه ویراست جدید نسبت به نسخۀ پیشین آن در موارد چندی بهبود یافته است، بررسی چند پیشنهاد ارائه شده، موجب کاربردی‌تر شدن آن و انتظار همراهی بیشتر کاربران با آن شیوه‌نامه خواهد شد.

https://rjhll.basu.ac.ir/article_6495_49ef08ad6e7f26d7f200e1b2b9e6e4ac.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های زبان شناسی تطبیقی 2252-0740 15 30 2025 12 22 Ideological Analysis and Religious Identity Constructs in the Arda Viraf Namah واکاوی ایدئولوژی و سازه‌های هویت دینی در ارداویراف‌نامه 115 133 6496 10.22084/rjhll.2025.30123.2349 FA مهدی علمی دانشور استادیار گروه ادیان شرق، دانشکده ادیان، دانشگاه ادیان و مذاهب 0009-0007-0891-8392 سمیه خلیلی دکتری و پژوهشگر پژوهشکده ادیان و مذاهب، دانشگاه ادیان و مذاهب Journal Article 2024 11 09 Introduction The Arda Viraf Namah, one of the foundational texts of Zoroastrianism during the Sasanian period, is a visionary account of the journey of the soul of Arda Viraf to the afterlife. Although this work appears to be a mystical and religious text on the surface, its historical and social context reveals signs of ideological and political function. This text was composed in the post-Alexander the Great era during the gradual revival of the Zoroastrian religious structure—a period when the Magi sought to consolidate religious authority and reconstruct the religious identity of the Zoroastrian community (Amozegar, 1993). "Furthermore, some scholars, including Assín Palacios, have pointed to the comparative potentials of the Arda Viraf Namah with texts such as the Divine Comedy; and Quentin Skinner has emphasized the significance of analyzing religious discourses in historical crises to elucidate the role of texts in reconstructing political legitimacy. These perspectives provide a framework for examining the Arda Viraf Namah not merely as a religious document but as a discursive text situated at the intersection of religion and power". If you want, I can also provide a version with more formal academic language or adaptation according to a specific style. Here is a specialized translation of the text incorporating Karl Mannheim's sociology of knowledge perspective: "In this regard, the central question arises: Is the Arda Viraf Namah merely a religious-narrative text, or—as Karl Mannheim's sociology of knowledge theory suggests—is it a reflection of the efforts by religious elites to reproduce the dominant ideology in response to a crisis of legitimacy and intra-religious tensions? In addressing this question, this article relies on Mannheim's theory concerning the relationship between knowledge and social position to analyze the ideological content of the text."This translation adapts specialized academic language suitable for scholarly contexts, maintaining nuance from the original text. Karl Mannheim argues that ideas, especially at the macro level, reflect the social positions and actions of dominant groups. From this perspective, the Arda Viraf Namah can be seen as a representation of an effort to consolidate the official interpretation of Mazdaism and to exclude dissenting readings. In this analysis, concepts such as ideology, religious identity, legitimacy, and collective memory are considered as foundational cognitive categories. These concepts enable the explanation of the relationship between eschatological narratives and politico-religious power. The present analysis demonstrates how notions like heaven, hell, family, and ethics within the text are employed not merely as spiritual teachings, but rather as instruments for orchestrating religious meaning and exercising social control. The necessity of this study lies precisely in this critical re-examination: understanding the Arda Viraf Namah not only as a theological text but also as a discursive document at the intersection of religion, ideology, and power is essential for comprehending the epistemic structure of ancient Iran. Research Background The text of the Arda Viraf Namah has attracted attention in various fields and has been studied from multiple perspectives. In the first category, several translations of this work have been published, among which the translations by Rashid Yasemi (1935), Afifi (1963), and Zhaleh Amuzegar (1993) stand out. These works mainly possess a linguistic and descriptive nature, focusing on conveying the content of the text into Persian, without engaging in theoretical analysis of the social contexts or ideological functions of the text. In the second category, comparative studies have attempted to examine the Arda Viraf Namah alongside works such as Dante’s Divine Comedy and Abu al-Ala al-Ma’arri’s Risalat al-Ghufran. Mahyar Alavi-Moghadam’s research (2010) presents a tripartite comparison of the Arda Viraf Namah, Risalat al-Ghufran, and the Divine Comedy, emphasizing the structural and thematic similarities of these three spiritual journeys. Moreover, Gardafarīn Mohammadi and Jalil Nazari (2008) in an article published in the Quarterly Journal of Comparative Literature explored a comparative study of the perspectives of these two Eastern texts (Arda Viraf Namah and Risalat al-Ghufran) regarding the afterlife. These studies primarily focus on analyzing narrative structures, common themes in the depiction of heaven and hell, and the examination of ethical concepts in spiritual journeys. The distinctive approach of the present article is that, instead of narrative analysis or intertextual comparison, it addresses the social and intellectual context of the text’s production and endeavors to analyze the Arda Viraf Namah as a tool for reproducing the ideology of religious elites. In the third category, analyses have been conducted from social, ethical, or political perspectives. Ali Rabie-zadeh, in his book "Arda Viraf Namah in the Balance of Critique" (2017), regards this text as a source for extracting historical information about the Sasanian era and examines its political, social, and economic content. Shoja Ahmadvand and Ruhollah Eslami, in their book on ancient Iranian political thought (2022), analyze the Arda Viraf Namah as part of ideological evidence serving the class structure of society. Furthermore, Ruholamini, in his book "Cultural and Social Manifestations in Persian Literature” (2000), introduces this work as reflective of the social structures, ethical norms, and value system of the Sasanian period. In a more recent study, Fatemeh Mosayebi and Ruhollah Eslami, in their article "Dialectic of Ideology or Utopia in the Arda Viraf Namah" 2022, attempt a more theoretical analysis of the text’s nature situated between the poles of “ideology” and “utopia.” While this research aptly highlights the meaning-making dimensions of the work, it does not directly analyze the theoretical framework of sociology of knowledge or the connection between the Magi’s mental structure and their social position. The common feature of most of these studies is that they have focused on the explicit and historical content of the text and have attempted to present a depiction of Sasanian society based on it. The fundamental difference of the present research from the aforementioned works lies in its theoretical perspective and level of analysis. This article, founded on an analytical-critical method, examines the Arda Viraf Namah not only as a historical source or a religious narrative but as a tool for the reproduction of ideological consciousness and legitimization of the Magi's discourse amid the crisis of the Sasanian period. This perspective enables an interpretation of the text within the framework of the interaction between the social status of religious elites, the discursive conditions of the era, and the process of consolidating religious-political authority—a methodological approach that has not been systematically pursued in earlier studies. Methodology The present research is grounded in the theoretical framework of Karl Mannheim’s sociology of knowledge and engages in dialogue with selected historical perspectives, particularly the ideas of Quentin Skinner and Miguel Asín Palacios, aiming for a critical reading of the Arda Viraf Namah. This approach asserts that ideas and texts are not products of isolated individuals but are constituted within specific historical, discursive, and social contexts. From this perspective, the Arda Viraf Namah is not merely a mystical or religious narrative of the soul’s journey but must be analyzed as an ideological text—one that emerged amid the political and religious legitimacy crises of the Sasanian era and seeks to reestablish the nexus between religion and politics. The present study is based on Karl Mannheim's theoretical framework of sociology of knowledge and engages in dialogue with certain historical perspectives, particularly the ideas of Quentin Skinner and Miguel Asín Palacios, to undertake a critical reading of the Arda Viraf Namah. This approach posits that ideas and texts are not products of isolated individuals but rather develop within specific historical, discursive, and social contexts. From this standpoint, the Arda Viraf Namah is not merely a mystical or religious narrative of the soul's journey, but must be analyzed as an ideological text—one that emerged amid the political and religious legitimacy crises of the Sasanian era and endeavors to reestablish the connection between religion and politics. Conclusion The Arda Viraf Namah can be understood as a multilayered text that emerged within the context of religious, cultural, and institutional crises of the Sasanian era and seeks to reconstruct a specific religious discursive stability and coherence. Analysis of this work through the lenses of Skinner, Palacios, and Mannheim reveals that it is not merely a report of a mystical revelation but carries an ideological representation aimed at consolidating the interpretive authority of the official religious institution against the religious diversity and fragmentation of its time. This article endeavors to avoid a reductionist perspective that portrays the Arda Viraf Namah solely as a state-serving text and instead highlights the complexity of interaction among religion, identity, power, and social order. Based on the evidence presented, the text is not merely an instrument of the ruling authority but a institutionalized response to intra-religious crises and an effort to demarcate boundaries between legitimate and alternative interpretations of Zoroastrianism. References Afifi, Rahim (1993). Arda Viraf Namah (Heaven and Hell in Mazdaism), Tehran: Toos Publications. Ahangari, Fereshteh [Translator] (2013). Dinkard VI. Tehran: Saba. Alavi Moghadam, Mahyar (2009). "A Comparative Study of Arda Viraf Namah, Risalat al-Ghufran, and Divine Comedy, " Al-Dirasat al-Adabiyya (Arabic and Persian Cultures and their Interaction), 41(86): 245-265. Amuzegar, Zhaleh [Translator] (1993). Arda Viraf Namah: Transliteration, Phonetics, and Pahlavi Text Translation; Philippe Gignoux. Tehran: Moein. Asín Palacios, Miguel (1926). Islam and the Divine Comedy, translated and abridged by Harold Sunderland, London. Asin Palacios, Miguel (2006). Life and School of Ibn Arabi. Translated by Hamid Reza Sheikhi. Tehran: Asatir. Daneshvar, Mahdi (2025). "Evolution of Concepts on Individual Eschatology in Zoroastrianism from Gathic to Pahlavi Texts", Ma’refat-e Adyan, Year 16, No. 2. Eslami, Ruhollah (2019). The Grandeur and Decline of Politics in Iranian Thought. Mashhad: Ferdowsi University Press. Eslami, Ruhollah; Ahmadvand, Shoja (2017). Political Thought in Ancient Iran. Tehran: SAMT. Fazilat, Fereydoun [Translator] (2002). Dinkard III. Tehran: Dehkhoda Culture. Gardafarīn Mohammadi, Jalil Nazari (2012). "Comparative Study of Arda Viraf Namah and Risalat al-Ghufran on the Afterlife," Quarterly Journal of Comparative Literature. Heydari, Donya; Taslimi, Mohammad Bagher (2012). Comparative Study of Heaven and Hell in Arda Viraf Namah and Divine Comedy, Literary Research Conference, Tehran. Hinnells, John Russell (1994). Understanding Iranian Myths. Translated by Zhaleh Amuzegar and Ahmad Tafazoli. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Mannheim, Karl (2010). Essays on Sociology of Knowledge, Translated by Fariborz Majidi. Tehran: Nashr-e Saleth. Mannheim, Karl (2013). Ideology and Utopia, Translated by Fariborz Majidi. Tehran: SAMT. Mannheim, Karl (2015). Democratization of Culture, Translated by Parviz Ejlali. Tehran: Ney. Mosayebi, Fatemeh; Eslami, Ruhollah (2022). "Dialectic of Ideology or Utopia of Arda Viraf Namah". Iranian Civilization Research Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 2. Nabati MS (2016). Evaluating and comparing the Book of Arda Viraf Nameh with Sayr al-’Ibad ILA l-Ma’ad, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 2328-3734. Naqibzadeh, Ahmad; Izadi, Amir Mohammad (2016). "Comparative Foundations of Legitimacy in Achaemenid and Sasanian States". Politics Quarterly, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Vol. 46, No. 3: 798-815. Pourdavoud, Ebrahim [Translator] (1998). Yashts, 2 volumes. Tehran: Asatir. Pourdavoud, Ebrahim [Translator] (2015). Avesta, 4 Vols. Tehran: Negah. Pourshabanan, Alireza; Pourshabanan, Amirhossein (2018). Comparative Study on the Capacities of Arda Viraf Namah Compared to Dante’s Inferno Text and Game, Comparative Literary Studies, Vol. 6, No. 4. Rabie-zadeh, Ali (2017). Arda Viraf Namah in the Balance of Critique, Unpublished. Ruholamini, Mohammad (2000). Cultural and Social Manifestations in Persian Literature. Tehran: Agah Publishing. Skinner, Quentin (2014). Visions of Political Science. Translated by Fariborz Majidi, Tehran: Farhang-e Javid. Soltani, Sima (2005). »Women's Sins in Arda Viraf Namah«. Women’s Research, No. 3. Tafazoli, Ahmad (1997). History of Pre-Islamic Persian Literature. Tehran: Sokhan. Tafazoli, Ahmad [Translator] (1975). Minavi Kherad. Tehran: Iran Culture Foundation. Yasemi, Rashid [Translator] (1935). Arda Viraf Namah, Unpublished. ارداویراف‌نامه از متون کلیدی دورۀ ساسانی است که در ظاهر، روایت یک سفر اخروی و مکاشفه دینی را بازگو می‌کند؛ اما در باطن بازتابی از نظم مطلوب اجتماعی، دینی و اخلاقی در گفتمان موبدان این عصر به شمار می‌رود. اهمیت این متن در آن است که کوششی در جهت تثبیت قرائتی خاص از دین مزدیسنی و مقابله با دگراندیشی‌های دینی و بحران مشروعیت مذهبی پس از حمله اسکندر را بازتاب می‌دهد. مسئله اصلی پژوهش، واکاوی ابعاد ایدئولوژیک و بازنمایی هویت دینی در این متن و نسبت آن با قدرت رسمی است. در این مقاله، با بهره‌گیری از روش تحلیلی ـ انتقادی آسین پالاسیوس و کوئنتین اسکینر و نیز چارچوب نظری کارل مانهایم، ارداویراف‌نامه در بستر تاریخی ـ اجتماعی مورد بررسی قرارداده است. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که این متن، با تأکید بر نهاد خانواده، اطاعت دینی، مرزگذاری میان نیک و دروند، و توصیف طبقه‌مند بهشت و جهنم، در پی تحکیم جایگاه جناحی از روحانیون است که با حاکمیت سیاسی همسو شده بودند. در عین حال، توجه به تفاوت اهداف دینی و کارکردهای سیاسی متن، به ما کمک می‌کند خوانشی متعادل‌تر از آن ارائه دهیم که به افراط در تفسیرهای سیاسی یا نادیده‌گرفتن کارکردهای دینی آن نیانجامد.

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دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های زبان شناسی تطبیقی 2252-0740 15 30 2025 12 22 Analysis of Gender Schemas of Khaqani Odes with the Approach of Cognitive Linguistics بررسی طرح‌واره‌های جنسیتی قصاید خاقانی با رویکرد زبان‌شناسی ‌شناختی 135 165 6497 10.22084/rjhll.2025.30498.2358 FA موسی علیزاده دانشجوی دکتری، رشتۀ زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران 0000-0001-5580-4565 فیروز فاضلی دانشیار گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران 0000-0003-4801-4180 علیرضا نیکویی دانشیار گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران. 0000-0001-8428-5389 Journal Article 2025 02 03 Introduction The topic of conceptual metaphors and conceptual schemas in the cognitive perspective is one of the central and challenging concepts of semanticists, which deals with the nature of the relationship between conceptual structure and sensory experience of the external world. In each metaphor, a cultural model is created in the mind, according to which the behavioral chain is planned. From a discursive perspective, the gender variable is a product of a society's culture and social movements, which is an important factor in shaping and distributing power among individuals. Charteris-Black is one of the cognitive theorists in the field of gender who attempts to represent the ideology and worldviews hidden in the background of the text through the lens of metaphor and rhetoric, and in terms of linguistic, pragmatic, and cognitive criteria. In this regard, she divides individual sources into three categories: thoughts, emotions, and bodily experiences, and social sources into ideological, historical, and cultural knowledge areas in order to reach a clear understanding of the text. Based on individuals' childhood gender schemas, John Stevens also believes that gender stereotypes have a network function and relate the constituent components of the concept, such as femininity and masculinity.In these cognitive approaches, the two factors of nature and environment are considered the most important agents of linguistic and symbolic stratification of gender roles. The veins of this thought can be observed in Khaqani's odes around the topic of Abai-Alavi and Ummahat-e-Arba'ah. This topic is one of the central concepts of the discursive system of Khaqani's odes, which, through the lens of linguistic research, is considered a channel for reproducing beliefs and intellectual-belief frameworks to the readers of the work. Literature Review In the last decade, several important studies have been written with a gender schema approach, including: Esmailian Azari et al (2023) seek to analyze the representation of gender ideology in the stylistic layers of personal elegies of Persian-speaking male and female poets. Shahrestani et al (1400) examined eight war-themed stories under four male and four female narratives, ultimately examining 3021 metaphors. Rouhani and Malek (2013) have concluded that due to the differences between women and men in terms of social status and biological characteristics, women prominently use similes and metaphors related to their gender, and this sexism is most visible in two pillars: simile and metaphor. Ghasemi (2015) examined the conceptual metaphors of women in the realm of purpose in Forough Farrokhzad's poems and found that the role of the lover is the most colorful role of women in the heart of the work. Daftrinejad and colleagues (2019) used content analysis to extract 317 conceptual metaphors from the works of Ahmad Mahmoud and 733 conceptual metaphors from the works of Simin Daneshvar in the source domain and concluded that these authors have made grief appear more normal than before by using vocabulary and cultural construction. In addition to these studies, articles were also found in the field of Khaghani's view of women in the poet's odes. For example, Behnamfar and Ahrari-Vafa (2010) state, based on psychological components, the geography of the word, and the social environment, that one of the reasons for accusing Khaghani of misogyny is a misunderstanding of Khaghani's poems. Methodology The present study, based on a descriptive-analytical method, intends to examine 132 great odes of Khaqani, corrected by Seyyed Ziauddin Sajjadi (Khaqani 2009). In this process, the authors extracted and analyzed all the odes that contain the semantic content of Ummah-e-Arba'ah and Abai-Alavi from the text, and finally, 162 words were extracted from 78 odes related to the research. The extracted words have a close relationship with the semantic dependencies of the domain of men and fathers (father, man, father, father) and the domain of mothers and women (woman, mother, mother, mother), in which the gender schemas (feminine/ masculine) of Khaghani's odes are depicted. During the analysis of the verses, each of the 162 words obtained was first classified under the metaphorical concepts of Abai-Alavi and Ummah-e-Arba'ah according to John Stevens' gender stereotypes (masculinity/femininity), and then these statements were categorized based on Kövecses' high-frequency domains of origin and destination. Finally, according to the Charteris-Black domain of personal and social resources, the reasons for Khaqani's tendency to use each of these schemas in various contexts were explained. However, in some cases, Khaqani's fragments were used in a limited manner in order to consolidate the research and clarify the discussion. Discussion In Khaghani's poems, we witness aspects of reciprocal discourses that are the result of the poet's dualistic view of the categories of women and men. This view is the result of the poet's insight into the gender beliefs and mythological motifs of the people of the four worlds and nine heavens, which is done in line with their interpretation and representation of the outside world. The result of this interpretation is the formation and expansion of the contrasting concept of "woman and man" with a frequency of 162 times in the areas of origin and destination of Khaghani's poetry. In most of the gender contrasts between women and men, the topic of Abai Alavi and Ummahat Arba'a, as one of the most frequently used examples of the discourse of qasayd, has a significant presence. Abai Alavi's conceptual metaphors In Khaghani's odes, out of a total frequency of 162 times, the poet has used the concept of "Abai-Alavi" 79 times and its semantic clusters such as (nine heavens, seven ploughmen, Bab, Aba, fathers, fathers, etc.) in high-frequency mappings of the source domain "human body, plants, animals, buildings and structures, movement and direction" under the semantic clusters "heavens, man, man, father of the poet, Jesus Christ and ode".This prevalent gender perspective is itself influenced by the social language, stories, and ideological discourses of Khaqani's childhood that he learned in the physical context of Shirvan through the process of socialization. As a result of this influence, "Abay-Alavi" is articulated in a masculine gendered form. Conceptual metaphor of the four mothers Khaghani activates the conceptual metaphor of four mothers and the semantic dependencies of "four pillars, lady, woman, mother, old woman, and four women" in the structure of his odes, sometimes independently and sometimes in contrast to the conceptual metaphor of Abai-Alavi, approximately 83 times. By highlighting the concept of "Ummah-e-Arba'ah", other concepts are facilitated in the discourse process with the central mappings of "being fertile and pregnant, being an element and akhshij, being a woman, being a mother" in the semantic clusters of "thought, luck, sky, universe, world, nature, vine, fate, justice and religion, tree branch, wives of the prophet, love, generosity, sunlight, and Khaqani's wife". These semantic domains often encompass the original domains of "human body and plants". Conclusion The study and analysis of the data indicate that the distinctive characteristic of Khaghani's life and thought system is his confrontational and dialectical view of the metaphorical concept of the Abai Alawi and the Ummah Arba'ah, which encompasses extensive semantic clusters at the lower levels of discourse. This dualism directly affects the development of identity and the formation of the dynamic role of women and mothers at different levels of Khaghani's odes. After reviewing and analyzing the data, it was observed that men, according to gender characteristics, are often extroverted and objectivist for reasons such as "being in society, traveling, and fighting," and that male actions are aligned and intertwined with the intellectual and belief ideologies prevalent in society. In contrast, women and mothers are often present at home, based on their maternal duties and socio-cultural constructions. These veiled women, with the power and influence of feminine speech and based on feelings and emotions, institutionalize key roles and fundamental beliefs in family and political structures. References Holy Qur'an. Translation of the Holy Bible (2017 AD). England: Elam Publications Afrashi, A. (2014). Semantic foundations, Tehran: Research Institute of Humanities and Cultural Studies. Behnamfar, Mohammad and Siddiqa Ahrariwafa (2009). "Is Khaqani anti-feminist?" Tabriz Persian Language and Literature Journal, serial number 220: 21-42. https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.22517979.1382.53.220.2.7 Charteris-Black, J. (2004). Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Daftarinijad, Afsaneh and others (2018). "Investigating the influence of gender and time on the conceptual metaphors of grief in the works before and after the Islamic revolution of Iran by Ahmad Mahmoud and Simin Daneshvar; From a socio-cognitive point of view". New Literary Essays, 52nd period, 4th issue: 19-41. https://doi.org/10.22067/jls.v52i4.85004 Farozanfar, Badi-ul-Zaman (2008). Sokhon and Sokhnoran, Tehran: Zovar Publications. Ghasemi, Zahra (2014). "Examination of the conceptual metaphor of women in Forough Farrokhzad's poems", Studies in Language and Lyrical Literature, 5th year, 16th issue: 25-36. https://sanad.iau.ir/Journal/lyriclit/Article/979959 Goli, Ahmed and Farnia Safdarpour (2014). "The face of women in the Khaqani Court", Dor Dari Quarterly, Year 5, Number 4: 29-44. https://sanad.iau.ir/Journal/lyriclit/Article/979965 Grossi, Saeedah (2015). Gender, Society and Sociology, Tehran: Sociologists Publications. Holmes, Mary (2009). Gender in everyday life, translated by Mohammad Mehdi Labibi, Tehran: Naqd Afkar Publications. Ismailian Azari and others (2023). "Analysis of the representation of gender ideology in the stylistic layers of mourning in Persian personal poems". 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An introduction to metacognitive research (the drop in the shell's cache), Tehran: Arjmand Publications. Raskhmohand, Mohammad (2018). An introduction to cognitive linguistics (theories and concepts), Tehran: Somit Publications Roshan, Balqis and Lili Ardabili (2012). An introduction to cognitive semantics, Tehran: Scientific Publications. Rouhani, Masoud and Sarunaz Malek (2013). "Investigating the effect of gender on the use of simile and metaphor in the poetry of contemporary women poets". Persian Language and Literature Quarterly, twenty-first year, number seventy-four: 7-27. https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.24766925.1392.21.74.1.8 Safavi, Koresh (2011). An introduction to semantics, Tehran: Surah Mehr Publications. Selajgeh, Parvin (2015). From this eastern garden (the theory of criticism of children's and teenagers' poetry), Tehran: Center for Intellectual Development of Children and Teenagers. Shahrashtani, Zahra and others (2021). "The influence of gender on the concept of metaphor in women's and men's narratives of imposed war", Sociolinguistics Quarterly, 5th period, 4th issue: 89-100. https://doi.org/10.30473/il.2023.61578.1496 Shamisa, Siros (2009). Farhang Talmihat, Tehran: Mitra Publications. Sharifi, Shahla and Samane Dariqgovtar. (2015). "Examination of ideological gender differences in society, period of discovery of hijab", Journal of Social Analysis of Social Order and Inequality, 8th period, 1st issue: 153-184. https://jsoa.sbu.ac.ir/article_99242.html Stevens, John (2007). Gender and literary genre, other inevitable readings: approaches to criticism and theory of children's literature. Translated by Esmail Hosseini, with the effort of Morteza Khosronjad, Tehran: Center for Intellectual Development of Children and Adolescents. Yarmohammadi, Lotfollah (1973). Sixteen articles in applied linguistics and translation, Shiraz: Navid Publications. مبحث آبای‌علوی و امّهات‌‌اربعه، ازجمله مفاهیم کانونی دستگاه گفتمانی قصاید خاقانی می‌باشد که از دریچۀ پژوهش‌های زبان‌شناختی، به‌مثابۀ مجرایی برای بازتولید باورها و چارچوب‌های فکری– اعتقادی به خوانندگان اثر به‌شمارمی‌آید. این پژوهش سعی دارد براساس حوزه‌های مبدأ و مقصد استعارۀ کوچش و کلیشه‌های جنسیتی جان استیونز و چارتریس-بلک، در 132 قصیدۀ خاقانی، نشان ‌دهد که اگرچه زنان در متن حضور کم‌رنگی دارند؛ امّا ردپای اندیشه‌های زنانه در لایه‌های زیرین شعر به‌وضوح دیده‌می‌شود. یافته‌های پژوهش نشان‌می‌دهد که کلیشه‌های‌جنسیتی آبای‌علوی و عناصر ‌اربعه در قصاید خاقانی، تقابل‌های گفتمانی دوگانه‌ای میان مفهوم استعاریِ مادر و پدر پدیدآورده‌است و بر طیف‌های‌معنایی دوگانه‌ای چون «آسمان و زمین/ پدر و مادر / زن و مرد» با بار معنایی مثبت و منفی، دلالت‌دارد.

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دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های زبان شناسی تطبیقی 2252-0740 15 30 2025 12 22 Exploring the cognitive concept of love in a non-literary context Persian and Arabic languages کاوش مفهوم شناختی عشق در بستر غیر ادبی زبان‌های فارسی و عربی 167 193 6498 10.22084/rjhll.2025.30385.2357 FA رضا ناظمیان استاد گروه زبان و ادبیات عربی دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی، تهران، ایران. سمیه محمدی دکترای زبان و ادبیات عربی دانشگاه بوعلی سینا، همدان، ایران. 0000-0002-4215-1179 Journal Article 2025 01 22 Introduction We have almost certainly come across the sentence, "Love belongs to the tales." This statement, in essence, suggests that love should be sought in imagination and literature, rather than in ordinary life and everyday reality. Implicit in this claim is the idea that the conceptualization of love, as it exists in imagination and literary contexts, is primarily expressed through literary language rather than through ordinary, colloquial speech. Indeed, if the linguistic expressions of love are removed from daily discourse, no significant impact occurs; in contrast, in literature, if love is absent, a substantial part of its essence is lost. Moreover, when we seek to understand the concept of love within a specific language or culture, we naturally turn to its literature, stories, myths, poetry, and poets. Similarly, to experience or comprehend moments of love, we often engage with poems, songs, and melodies, which are typically rich in love-related themes. The fact that we predominantly encounter the language of love in literary contexts rather than in everyday language may also reflect the inherent nature of love: it is not an ordinary, everyday emotion. It goes beyond the fundamental emotions—joy, sorrow, anger, and fear—which are experienced repeatedly and serve as mechanisms for survival. Love, however, transcends the primary obligations of life, seeming to exist for a more meaningful and enriched form of existence beyond mere biological survival. It engages the imagination, fosters creativity, and creates novel mappings between elements, connecting them in new and meaningful ways. In doing so, love constantly challenges existing reality and elevates it to a higher, more transcendent level. In this study, we aim to address the following questions through a cognitive exploration of this emotional concept: What are the most common source domains for understanding and expressing the concept of love in Persian and Arabic? What is the conceptual metaphor structure of love in these languages? What similarities and differences exist in the conceptual structure of love between the two languages? Background Research on the concept of love in the "conventional" Persian and Arabic languages has been relatively limited. However, numerous studies have explored the concept of love in "literature," particularly focusing on mystical or Sufi love. Among the studies that have examined this emotion in Persian language and literature, the following are noteworthy: The dissertation titled “A Comparative Study of Metaphor in Persian and English Based on Conceptual Metaphor Theory” by Sarahi (2012) examined metaphors of anger, joy, love, sadness, fear, and color. It is one of the few studies that also collected some linguistic expressions of conventional love. The results revealed numerous similarities and differences among the metaphors corresponding to these concepts in the two languages. Other notable works include the article “Cognitive Analysis of Love Metaphors in Sanai’s Ghazals” by Zarghani et al. (2013), the dissertation “Examining the Metaphorical Systems of Love in Five Mystical Texts Based on Cognitive Metaphor Theory” by Hashemi (2013), the article “Cognitive Metaphors of Love in Rumi’s Masnavi” by Asperham and Tasdighi (2018), and the study titled “Dual Nature in the Conceptualization of Love Metaphors in Persian: A Cognitive Approach” by Tavakoli Garmaseh (2020). In Arabic, the article “A Conceptual Approach to the Structure of Psychological Verbs in Arabic” by Al-Fraouzi and Marzooq (2021) briefly addresses love/hate, anger/discontent, sadness/joy, pride/shyness, and similar concepts. It classifies sadness, anger, hate, and shame as introvert or constrictive emotions, while their opposites are considered expansive emotions. Method The methodology of this study is descriptive-analytical, employing a cognitive semantics approach. In this framework, we first collect conventional and common conceptual metaphors of love in Persian and Arabic that reveal the cognitive mechanisms underlying the concept of love. Then, we study, analyze, and organize these metaphors systematically. The distinguishing feature of the present research lies in its cognitive examination of the source domains that represent love in language, allowing us to observe and systematically identify the ways speakers of these two languages conceptualize love. Results An analysis of a selected set of conventional linguistic expressions in Persian and Arabic indicates that the linguistic manifestations of love are primarily literary-metaphorical, followed by conventional-metaphorical, and then literal-physical or figurative-physiological. In other words, love is not an all-encompassing emotion or experience, and this characteristic is reflected in its linguistic representation. A substantial portion of these expressions consists of personal, creative, and idiosyncratic interpretations, often reflected in literature. However, beyond this largely individual-centered domain, there is also a collective system; in other words, the understanding and expression of love can be both personal and communal. Love is as personal as the creative aspect of individual thought and expression (specific literature), while the remainder, shaped by a secondary inclination and the psychological needs of the general population, predominantly appears in literary or non-literary conventional usage. Therefore, constructing a complete conceptual structure of love without reference to literature and non-conventional language is incomplete or impossible. Discussion Speakers of Persian and Arabic often conceptualize the abstract experience of love through tangible experiences such as Container, Force, Atmosphere, Path/ Pathlessness (confusion), Personification, Pain, Illness, and similar source domains. For example, when experiencing love, one may perceive themselves as being affected by a powerful Force with strong attraction or pull (I was captivated/ enamored; in Arabic: خلبه وسحره الحب، أخّاذ بجماله، یسلب اللُّب), or as a Container with its contents and properties (with a broken heart/ full of love, pure and sincere love; أحبّه من صمیم القلب، رفع الصمّام عن شعوره بحبها، عمق وتدفّق وخلجات الحب), or as pain embodied in a burning phenomenon (fiery love, heartbroken lover; نار المحبة، حب متّقد، حبّها أضرم قلبی). The data reveal extensive cognitive overlaps between the two languages, which may stem from intercultural interactions as well as a fundamental physiological arousal mechanism. Nevertheless, in relation to love, the role of culture in each language cannot be ignored, as it shapes unique experiential and cognitive patterns, which in turn influence specific linguistic expressions. Cognitive models of love, while generally aligning with the five-stage scenario of emotional experience (cause, onset, attempt to control, loss of control, reaction), demonstrate distinctive characteristics. One such distinction is that love often elicits one of the basic emotions—joy, fear, or sadness—depending on the individual’s hopefulness, despair, or anxiety during the experience, producing a kind of overlap, simultaneity, or interdependence of two emotions throughout the scenario. Consequently, the lover may display characteristics of a fearful, happy, or sorrowful individual, revealing important cultural and cognitive differences. For instance, if a culture is more conservative or introverted regarding love, the expression or confession of love may become more complex. The stage of emotional control may become so dominant that the continuation of the scenario is prevented. In a tribal culture where marriages within kinship are valued, the cognitive model of “love for a stranger” often functions in a fragmented manner. In patriarchal cultures, male acceptance of love may be seen as counter-normative or a form of involuntary lapse, while the aspects of enchantment, seduction, and allure of women are broadly reflected in the cultural-linguistic expressions (وقع فی حب فاتنة). Another distinction of love from other emotions is the longer temporal unfolding of these stages and its narrative-like scenario, which explains its prominent presence in literature as long poetic or prose narratives and reflects the cultural prominence of love. Historically, love was not a universal experience because it was not essential for survival. However, with the current prominence of the Atmosphere Personification domain, this experience has acquired a normative and purposeful dimension, being actively pursued by many as an ideal. References The Holy Quran. A group of authors. (n.d.). Al-Munjad fi al-Lugha al-Arabiya al-Muasirah. Beirut: Dar al-Mashreq. Afrashi, A. (2017). “Cognitive-root mapping of lexicons and conceptual metaphors in the domain of emotions: A cognitive approach”. Journal of Language and Linguistics, 13(26), 69–88. magiran.com/p1887919 Al-Faraouzi, A., & Marzooq, M. (2021). A conceptual approach to the structure of psychological verbs in Arabic: Issues and models. Al-Omda Journal of Linguistics and Discourse Analysis, 5(2), 322–343. cerist.dz/en/article/152634 Ebrahimi Dinani, G. H. (2001). Daftar-e Aghl va Ayat-e Eshgh. Tehran: Tarh-e No. Ebtehaj, H. (2009). Ghazaliyat Houshang Ebtehaj. Tehran: Cheshmeh Publications. Esparham, D., & Tasdighi, S. (2018). Cognitive metaphors of love in Rumi’s Masnavi. Motaleat-e Adabi, 76, 87–114. 22054/ltr.2018.8834 Fiyazi, M. (2008). The metaphorical origins of polysemous sensory verbs in Persian from a cognitive semantics perspective. Adab-Pazhuheshi, 6, 87–109. 1001.1.17358027.1388.2.6.4.2 Hashemi, Z. (2013). Metaphorical chains of “love” in Sufism: A study of Sufi views from the 2nd to 6th century AH based on Conceptual Metaphor Theory. Literary Criticism Quarterly, 6(22), 29–48. 1001.1.20080360.1392.6.22.4.7 Koochesh, Z. (2015). Metaphor in world cultures and diversity (N. Entezam, Trans.). Tehran: Siahroud. Koochesh, Z. (2019). A practical introduction to metaphor (Sh. Pour-Ebrahim, Trans., 2nd ed.). Tehran: SAMT. Kövecses, Z. (2000). Metaphor and Emotion: Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2016). Metaphors we live by (H. Agha Ebrahimi, Trans., 2nd ed.). Tehran: Nashr-e Elm. Mohammadi, S. (2021). Comparative study of metaphor (metaphors related to four emotional concepts: joy, sadness, anger, and fear) in Persian and Arabic based on Conceptual Metaphor Theory. Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan. Mousavi-Sabet, F., Khalili-Jahantigh, M., & Barani, M. (2020). Cognitive metaphor of love in Kash Harfi Bezani by Mostafa Rahmandoust (based on Lakoff & Johnson’s theory). Pazhuheshnameh Adab-e Ghonai, 34, 203–226. 22111/jllr.2020.5296 Nazemian, R. (2014). Dictionary of Arabic-Persian Proverbs and Expressions. Tehran: Farhang-e Moaser. Rabiei, F., Ghorbani, N., & Panaghi, L. (2020). “Physiological correlates of basic emotions: Anger and sadness in healthy and depressed individuals”. Journal of Psychological Sciences, 19(90), 665–675. 1001.1.17357462.1399.19.90.13.9 Ramazani, R., & Nazemian, R. (2019). “Conceptual metaphor and imagery in Ghada al-Samman’s poetry based on Lakoff and Johnson’s theory”. Applied Rhetoric Quarterly, 4(2), 123–137. 30473/prl.2021.45007.1542 Rumi, J. M. (n.d.). Kulliyat-e Shams or Diwan Kabir (B. F. Forouzanfar, Ed.). Tehran: Amir Kabir. Zarghani, S. M., Mahdavi, M., & Abad, M. (2013). “Cognitive analysis of love metaphors in Sanai’s ghazals”. Literary Studies, 3, 1–30. 22067/jls.v46i4.22056 پژوهش حاضر با رویکرد شناختی به مفهوم عشق و تعابیر آن در بخش همگانی و غیر ادبیِ زبان‌های فارسی و عربی می‌پردازد با این هدف که مشخص نماید بازنمایی‌های عشق در این بخش به چه صورت است و تا چه اندازه استعاری است. بررسی داده‌ها، نشان از آن دارد که سهم استعاره‌های عشق از زبان رایج و عادیِ روزمره برخلاف دیگر مفاهیم احساسی نظیر خشم، ترس، غم و شادی که عمدتا استعاری اند، چندان نیست. علت می‌تواند این باشد که احساسات مذکور در انجام تکالیف اصلی زندگی لازم و اجتناب ناپذیرند و به صورت روزمره تجربه می‌شوند؛ به تعبیری جزو سازوکار بقای انسان به شمار می آیند؛ ولی عشق تجربه‌ای همه شمول و ناگزیر نیست و این ویژگی آن در زبان نیز انعکاس یافته است طوری‌که عشق، بیشتر واقعیتی ادبی و خیال انگیز پیدا کرده تا معمول و متعارف؛ بنابراین عشق بیشترِ ساختار خود را در بخش ادبی و دریافت‌های ذوقی زبان می یابد و فهم و بیان آن چندان با استعاره های رایج و روزمره‌ای که با آنها زندگی می‌کنیم، صورت نمی‌پذیرد و به همین خاطر است که برای شناخت این مفهوم در یک زبان/ها، ناخودآگاه به سراغ شعر و داستان های عاشقانه یا همان ادبیات زبان موردنظر می‌رویم. روش انجام این تحقیق، توصیفی- تحلیلی و روش تحلیل به صورت معناشناسیِ شناختی است. بررسی داده های این پژوهش، نشان می‌دهد که نیرو (جاذبة معشوق و قدرت عشق)، مسابقه (هم‌آوردی طرفین)، جهت (پیرو شدن عاشق)، ظرف و ماده درون آن (وجود عشق و کیفیت آن)، جاندارپنداری (صاحب اختیار شدن دیگری یا عشق) و آتش (درد، بیماری و تباهی) جنبه‌های برجسته یافته عشق در سطح متعارف این زبان‌ها است.

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دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های زبان شناسی تطبیقی 2252-0740 15 30 2025 12 22 Identifying Basic Vocabulary of Illiterate and Low-Literate Iranian Adults: The Case of Literacy Movement Organization of Iran Learners شناسایی واژگان پایه بزرگسالان بی‌سواد و کم‌سواد سراسر کشور: مورد فراگیران سازمان نهضت سواد آموزی 195 228 6501 10.22084/rjhll.2025.30229.2351 FA خسرو رشید دانشیار، گروه روانشناسی، دانشکده علوم‌اقتصادی و اجتماعی، دانشگاه بوعلی سینا، همدان، ایران فضل الله حسنوند دکتری روانشناسی تربیتی دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی، تهران. ایران نگار رشید استادیار زبان و ادبیات فارسی و عضو هیأت علمی دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد نور-مرکز محمودآباد Journal Article 2024 12 07 Introduction Language plays a crucial role in learning through hearing, reading, and writing. While learning often begins with listening, reading is the second linguistic tool for education, with the emphasis shifting from "learning to read" to "reading to learn" in later elementary grades. Writing, as the third linguistic mechanism, is a cognitive activity and a valuable tool for enhancing comprehension and learning. While language encompasses various units, words are considered the building blocks and the "heart of any language". Words, unlike phonemes and sentences, are neither limited nor unlimited, and are viewed as the first mental unit of a language. Just as different linguistic units vary in importance, so do various types of vocabulary. Experts in the field of education and learning have defined a category of words known as "basic vocabulary". According to Haghshenas, basic vocabulary includes words that are commonly shared among all speakers of a language. Ameri and Zolfaghari define it as a collection of words with the highest frequency of occurrence in the spoken and written forms of a language. Carter (1998) notes that basic vocabulary consists of a limited number of high-frequency words that are resistant to being replaced by other words. They are essential for language users to simplify communication in specific contexts, such as when communicating with children or foreigners. Additionally, basic vocabulary is a key component of plain language writing, which is crucial for authors of educational and academic books. While some basic words are specialized, others are general and used for routine communication, with adult basic vocabulary being the most familiar, frequently used, and everyday words. The importance of basic vocabulary in the educational process is due to the continuous flow of information and messages in the classroom. The effectiveness of teaching and learning is directly tied to the success of communication between the teacher and the learner. A major challenge in Iran's education system, as noted by Nematzadeh and colleagues (1390), is that those involved in Persian language education and textbook authors do not have a precise understanding of the most common and suitable words for teaching. They often rely on intuition and experience to select words for educational texts. Furthermore, the difference between the native language of many adult learners and the language of instruction (Persian), as well as issues arising from socioeconomic factors that limit vocabulary, highlights the need to understand the lexical knowledge of learners. Experts in adult literacy believe that educational books should be localized to be appropriate and familiar to the audience, and understanding basic vocabulary is a crucial step in this process. The key reasons for the importance and necessity of this research are: the role of basic vocabulary in education, the lack of a comprehensive study on the basic vocabulary of illiterate and low-literate learners in the Literacy Movement Organization, the difference between the native language of some of these learners and the instructional language (Persian), the varying levels of vocabulary among learners due to social and family factors, the need for authors of educational texts to be familiar with basic vocabulary to write appropriate content, and the difference between the basic vocabulary of adult literacy learners and school-aged children. Therefore, this research aimed to identify the basic vocabulary of illiterate and low-literate adults across the country and to answer the fundamental question: what is the basic vocabulary and the frequency of each word among illiterate and low-literate adults in Iran? Literature Review The field of basic vocabulary has been a subject of interest for researchers in various disciplines, such as language teaching, lexicography, and textbook writing. Below are some of the most important studies conducted in Iran and abroad. Domestic Research Fereydoun Badreh'i (1350): The first major work in Iran was his doctoral dissertation, "The Lexical Breadth of Elementary School Children Based on Their Writings". This study, which analyzed 98,769 words from 1,085 letters written by elementary students, identified 8,712 linguistic forms and 4,598 different words. Based on frequency and distribution, 775 words were determined as the basic vocabulary for this age group. Leili Ayman (1357): Her ten-year research, titled "A List of the Most Frequent Words of Children (6 to 12 years old)," collected and analyzed approximately four million words from oral and written sources, resulting in a list of 2,398 words. Zarghamian (1360s): In his doctoral dissertation, "Reading Vocabulary of Iranian Elementary School Children," he presented a list of 13,000 words with a frequency of over 90,000, based on 87 books and 9 articles and stories. Safarpoor (1360s): His research titled "Basic Vocabulary of First to Fifth Grade Classes" analyzed words from elementary school textbooks and Literacy Movement books, presenting a list of about 26,000 words, of which 1,000 were from Literacy Movement books. Nemat-zadeh et al. (1380-1384): The national research "Identifying the Basic Persian Vocabulary of Iranian Elementary Students" was conducted with the participation of 20,000 students and 750 teachers to identify words familiar to elementary students. The study produced three sets of vocabulary: productive, receptive, and teacher-identified. Kookabi and Cheraghi (1392): Their exploratory study aimed to identify the basic reading vocabulary of elementary school children and compare it with their writing vocabulary. The study analyzed 162,650 linguistic forms and 6,155 words from children's storybooks, ultimately identifying 1,602 basic reading words. Foreign Research Thorndike (1944): He analyzed 4.5 million words from 120 books to estimate about 20,000 basic words in the English language. Rinsland (1945): His study, "Basic Vocabulary of Elementary School Students," examined the writings of students from different parts of the United States. West (1953): He presented a list of high-frequency words in his book, "A General English Word List," to serve as a guide for creating simple reading materials. Dalton (1999): He created a list of high-frequency English words for Japanese learners, which included 734 basic words selected from West's 2,000 most frequent words. Angelo (2005): His research on Japanese students showed that focusing on basic words in the curriculum is a key strategy for English language development. Chambubotter et al: (2009). They identified the basic vocabulary of the Thai language from credible written sources. Methodology This research is a descriptive and applied study. The descriptive method involves collecting data to test hypotheses or answer questions about the current state of the subjects. Measurement Tool: A 24-page booklet was used, designed by the researcher based on the tests from Nematzadeh et al.'s research on elementary school basic vocabulary. The booklet had 24 topics, each with images of four to five examples of the topic. The topics included: Art/Literature, Sports/Games/Entertainment, Tools/Technology, Body, Clothing/Makeup, Education, Animals, Family, Home/Living Environment, Food, Religion/Ethics, Social Relations/ Communication, Events, Behavior, Colors, Travel/Transportation, Health/Hygiene, Nature, Work/Skills, Quantity, Quality, Plants, Concepts, and Materials/Elements. During the individual interviews, participants were asked to tell a story or say whatever came to their mind about each of the 24 topics. This allowed for the identification of the most frequent words used by the participants. Statistical Population, Sampling Method, and Sample Size: The statistical population of the study included all illiterate and low-literate adult men and women in the Literacy Movement Organization's literacy classes in Iran. Based on the need for at least 100 participants for each subgroup in a survey study, a sample size of 600 people was initially planned. The study used a purposive sampling method to cover different strata and provinces. The three groups studied were industrial-worker, agricultural, and women. The provinces of Alborz, Isfahan, Khorasan-Razavi, and Tehran were selected for industrial-worker populations, while Markazi, Fars, Mazandaran, and Khuzestan were chosen for agricultural populations. Additionally, Khorasan-Razavi, Mazandaran, Tehran, Kermanshah, and Khuzestan were selected for the women's group. Due to the low participation of men in the classes, women were used as replacement samples where necessary. Data Analysis: The research was conducted in several stages. After selecting the provinces, researchers went to the Literacy Movement centers to identify and interview the participants. The interviews were fully recorded and transcribed. The data was then analyzed using a content analysis method. Descriptive statistics (frequency) and frequency distribution tables were used to present the findings. Results The research data was analyzed using content analysis. The findings are presented in the following frequency distribution tables: Discussion The findings of this research highlight the most frequently used words by illiterate and low-literate adults in Iran. The analysis of the data revealed that words like "good," "work," "child/childhood," "home," and "use" are among the most common, reflecting the daily realities and concerns of the target population. The high frequency of words related to family, daily life, health, and social interactions suggests that these topics are central to the lives and conversations of illiterate and low-literate adults. This study's findings are of significant importance for educational policymakers and authors of literacy materials. The identified basic vocabulary can serve as a foundation for developing educational books that are more relevant, familiar, and effective for adult learners. By incorporating these high-frequency words into textbooks and instructional materials, educators can bridge the gap between the learners' existing vocabulary and the language used for instruction. This approach can make the learning process more accessible and engaging, ultimately leading to higher rates of success in literacy programs. The study's results also underscore the need to localize educational materials to better suit the specific linguistic and cultural contexts of adult learners. The contrast between the vocabulary of adult learners and that of school children, as noted in the introduction, further emphasizes the need for tailored materials. While previous studies have focused on the vocabulary of children, this research fills a crucial gap by focusing on the specific needs of adult learners in the Literacy Movement Organization. The findings provide a valuable, evidence-based list of words that can be used to improve the content of educational resources for this underserved population. References Alaqemandan, J. (2000). Basic vocabulary in the service of children's literature and curriculum planning. In Audience Studies in Children's and Adolescent Literature Seminar. Tehran: Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults. Ketab-e Mah-e Koodak va Nojavan, 80–84. [In Persian] https://ensani.ir/fa/article/329173 Alavi-Moghadam, B. (2008). The amount of learning and expansion of derivative words in bilingual elementary students based on the Persian Basic Vocabulary Corpus (Doctoral dissertation). Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran. [In Persian] Amiri, H., & Zolfaghari, H. (2012). Basic vocabulary and children’s lexicography in Persian. Iranian Curriculum Studies Quarterly, 7(27), 159–174. [In Persian] https://sid.ir/paper/485902/fa Badraei, F. (1973). Written vocabulary of Iranian elementary school children. Tehran: Academy of Persian Language. [In Persian] https://eliteraturebook.com/books/15014 Carter, Ronald. (1998). Vocabulary: Applied Linguistic Perspectives (2nd edition), Routledge.https://worldcat.org/search?q=ti%3A%22Vocabulary%3A+Applied+Linguistic+Perspectives%22+au%3A%22Ronald+Carter%22+yr%3A1998..1998 Dadras, M. (2012). A multiple thematic classification of Persian basic vocabulary. Iranian Curriculum Studies Quarterly, 7(27), 33–66. [In Persian] https://sid.ir/paper/488458/fa Dadras, M., & Mansourizadeh, M. (2005). Final report of the project for identifying Persian basic vocabulary of Iranian primary school students, Vol. 4: Vocabulary based on teachers’ views nationwide. Tehran: Ministry of Education, Organization for Research and Educational Planning. [In Persian] https://www.sid.ir/paper/485903/fa Delavar, A. (2011). Theoretical and practical foundations of research in humanities and social sciences. Tehran: Roshd Publications. [In Persian] Eggen, Paul., Kauchak, Don. (2010). Educational Psychology(eight edition), USA, Merrill.https://books.google.com/books?q=%22Educational+Psychology%3A+Windows+on+Classrooms%22+Eggen+Kauchak+8th Eiman, L. (1978). A list of the most frequent words of children aged 6 to 13. Tehran: National Committee for the World Campaign against Illiteracy. [In Persian] Fekri, N. (2003). Identification and analysis of written vocabulary of Iranian elementary school children (Master’s thesis). Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz. [In Persian] Glover, J. A., & Bruning, R. H. (2008). Educational psychology: Principles and applications (Trans. A. Kharazi). Tehran: Center for Academic Publishing. [In Persian] https://opac.nlai.ir/opac-prod/bibliographic/533046 Hojjati Tabatabaei, A. (1998). A one-day seminar on identifying basic vocabulary in primary education. Roshd-e Amoozesh-e Ebtedaei, 2(13). [In Persian] Kazemi, P. C. (2010). Research methods in behavioral sciences (Trans. G. Nafisi & K. Ganji). Tehran: Ayandeh Derakhshan Publications. [In Persian] https://www.iranketab.ir/Images/ProductImages/51dd318a658d4323a3cdb60fc89ae20b.jpg Kookabi, M., & Cheraghi, Z. (2013). A study of reading vocabulary of elementary school children and comparison with their written vocabulary. Children’s Literature Studies Journal, 4(2). [In Persian] https://www.sid.ir/paper/186902/fa Ne’matzadeh, Sh. (2012). Using basic vocabulary in authoring first-grade mathematics textbooks. Curriculum Studies Quarterly, 7(27). [In Persian] https://www.sid.ir/paper/471029/fa Ne’matzadeh, Sh., et al. (2005). Final report of the project for identifying Persian basic vocabulary of Iranian elementary school students, Vol. 1. Tehran: Ministry of Education, Organization for Research and Educational Planning. [In Persian] https://doi.org/10.30465/lsi.2020.7580 Ne’matzadeh, Sh., et al. (2011). Persian basic vocabulary from the speech of Iranian children. Tehran: Madreseh Publications. [In Persian] https://www.sid.ir/fa/VEWSSID/J_pdf/70613912708.pdf Nematzade, S. (2003). Identification of Iranian primary school students' core vocabulary, A Brief Report of a National Project“in the Proceedings of 14th Eupean-Symposium on Language for S Purposes (LSP 2003), England, Guid ford, University of Surrey, 18-22. https://www.sid.ir/paper/549323/en Rinsland, Henry. D. (1945). A Basic Vocabulary of Elementary School Children, New York, Macmillan Company. https://openlibrary.org/works/OL22230209W/A_basic_ vocabulary_of_elementary_school_children?edition=key%3A/books/OL6480537M Russell, D.H.(1954), The Dimensions of ChildrenFs Meaning Vocabularies In Grade Four Through Twelve, University of California publs. Education. https://books.google.fr/books/about/The_Dimensions_of_Children_s_Meaning_Voc.html?id=sE4_KOlS8QIC&redir_esc=y Safarpour, A. (1991). Basic vocabulary of grades one to five of elementary school. Tehran: Organization for Research and Educational Planning, Office of Educational Aids Publications. [In Persian] San’ati, M. (2012). An investigation of the use of basic vocabulary in several Persian elementary dictionaries. Iranian Curriculum Studies Quarterly, 7(27), 135–158. [In Persian] https://sid.ir/paper/478828/fa Teybi, A. (2003). A profile for words. Educational Innovations Quarterly, 2(4), 65–79. [In Persian] https://ensani.ir/fa/article/276649 Throndike, E., Irvibng, L. (1944). The Teaches word of 30000 words, New York., Colombia university. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001281148?type%5B%5D= title&lookfor%5B%5D=%22The%20Dimensions%20of%20Children%27s%20Meaning%20Vocabularies%22&ft= Wagovich, S. A., Ratner, N. B. (2007). Frequency of verb use in young children who stutter, journal of, J Fluency disorder. 32(2), 79-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2007.02.003 West, Michael. (1953). A General service list of English Words, with semantic frequencies and a supplementary word-list for the writing of popular science and technology, London, Longmans. https://openlibrary.org/works/OL1541756W/General_ Service_List_of_English_Words?edition=key%3A/books/OL14073205M این پژوهش با هدف شناسایی پربسامدترین واژه‌های بزرگسالان بی‌سواد و کم سواد ایران انجام شد. برای این منظور، از میان سه قشر کارگری- صنعتی، کشاورزی و بانوان نُه استان کشور (البرز، اصفهان، خراسان رضوی، تهران، مرکزی، فارس، مازندران، خوزستان و کرمانشاه) 600 تن از بزرگسالان بی‌سواد و کم سواد با کمک نمونه‌گیری هدفمند انتخاب شدند و با استفاده از روش مصاحبه مورد بررسی قرار گرفتند. تعداد کل واژه‌های به‌کار برده شده به‌وسیله 600 زن و مرد بزرگسال بی‌سواد و کم‌سواد مورد بررسی در این پژوهش 691000 واژه بود که به‌طور تقریبی تعداد واژه‌های نامکرر آن نیز نزدیک به 12000 واژه بود. یافته‌های پژوهش در قالب جدول توزیع فراوانی پربسامدترین واژه‌های بزرگسالان ارائه شدند. تحلیل داده‌ها نشان دادند که واژه‌های «خوب، کار، بچه/ بچگی، خانه، استفاده، بعد، درست، آدم، دوست، رنگ، خانواده، جا، زندگی، غذا/ تغذیه، کس/کسی، بدن، لباس، بازی، وسیله، ورزش، انسان، تربیت، دست، جور (معنی نوع‌ و گونه)، رفتار، مواد، گل، طبیعت، دین، زن/ زنانه، اخلاق/ اخلاقی، سلامت، ماشین، روز/ روزه/ روزی، بیرون، گیاه، بد، زن، بهداشت، هنر، کیفیت، آرایش، تفریح، سر، مردم، سالم، اندازه، خدا، پدر و تمیز» به ترتیب پربسامدترین واژه‌های به‌کار برده شده به‌وسیله بزرگسالان بی‌سواد و کم‌سواد مورد بررسی در این پژوهش بودند. بر اساس یافته‌های این پژوهش، پیشنهاد می‌شود که در تهیه کتاب‌های آموزشی بزرگسالان بی‌سواد و کم‌سواد سراسر کشور، به واژگان پایه شناسایی شده توجه و از آنها سود برده شود.

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